The consequences of the negligence of officers to properly train men in the exercise of arms, is perhaps best illustrated by the performance of the 44th and 48th Foot at the Battle of Monongahela, who, along with the colonial auxiliaries, “…threw their fire away in the most confused manner, some in the air, others in the ground, and a great many destroyed their own men and officers.”8 In their defense, the 44th and 48th came to America at half strength, filling out the ranks with raw recruits during the previous months. Nevertheless, such a damning comment from an English officer suggests insufficient training and poor leadership at the company and section level.
What information on this subject was available to the officers and men
of the revolutionary period, not only to safely and efficiently fight, but to bring
order to the workings of the military unit?
Three texts appear to be the most prevalent, based off publication of
additional editions, those mentioned in correspondence, and are reflected in
extant general orders and regimental orderly books (which are a valuable source
in and of themselves). These include;
the Regulations of 1764, Bland’s Treatise, and Von Steuben’s Drill. Together, they are indispensible for officer,
soldier, and recruit. A fourth text, a
1759 English translation of the 1727 Regulations for Prussian Infantry, while
probably not to be found in the average knapsack, is recommended as it is
referred to in period correspondence and texts to include the Plan of
Discipline for the Norfolk Militia.9 The Prussian regulations certainly influenced
the Baron Von Steuben drillmaster and Inspector General of the Continental Army. He would have been intimately familiar with
them in the service of Frederick the Great,
assigned as aide-de-camp to the innovative and forward-thinking commander,
Johann Meyr .10
The 1764 regulations, or The Manual Exercise, as ordered by His
Majesty in 1764. Together with
Plans and Explanations of the Method Generally Practiced at Reviews and Field
Days., was published in twenty-six
editions in America alone, beginning in New York in 1766, as well as Boston,
Philadelphia, Wilmington, Providence, Lancaster, and Newburyport. 11
Of interest, it is advertised in several editions of the Virginia Gazette for
sale by the printers Dixon and Hunter throughout 1775,
coincidental to the raising of the 1st and 2nd Virginia
Regiments for the defense of the colony. 12 It is very likely that the ’64 was the manual
of arms to which Washington referred, having been a provincial officer and
whose professional library was well stocked with military treatises. Given the proliferation of the aforementioned
twenty-six editions of the ’64, chances are that copies were tucked in the
knapsacks of would-be officers as they formed their companies in Williamsburg
in the summer and fall of 1775.
 |
The '64, adopted by Congress, competed with the Norfolk drill,
Pickering's, Bland's and ostensibly the 1708 until Valley Forge. |
The
manual exercise of 1764 prescribes the manner in which men should manipulate,
load, and fire their unwieldy weapons in very close quarters to their comrades. The explanations should be studied to ensure
that the soldier is thoroughly completing the motions in the proper timing to
prevent collision and ensure the greatest volume of fire or to smoothly fix and
present the bayonet. This was even more
essential by 1775 as infantry formations were more open and no longer in the
three ranks of the first half of the century.13 Yet the ’64, while adopted by Congress in
1775 as the manual of arms and maneuver, does not give us information on how
the enlisted man was to perform his duties or what they might be. It takes more than rapid fire and the bayonet
to defeat an enemy. Armies are made up
of collections of smaller units, and rare was the time when Armies blundered
into each other in set-piece battle.
Small unit actions, raiding and foraging parties, picquets, field
fortification, patrols: these were the
day-to-day duties of the soldier. According
to the manuals of the day these duties depended, in part, upon the lessons
learned from the practice of drill. 14 The effectiveness of the section or
Sergeant’s guard equally rests upon the discipline of the “compleat” soldier. This extends
beyond the drill field and the outer-guard’s redoubt to the duties of the
barracks or camp, and begins before the drum roll is sounded to assemble.15
As La Cointe underlines the
importance of experience, “When many sentries are posted, care should be taken
that the oldest soldiers or those that know their duty best, should be posted
at the most exposed and distant places, and in such a manner that they may
discover all approaches to the post.”16
La Cointe’s suggested “old soldier” goes beyond the technical aspects of ’64. Such qualities separated regular from militia
and veteran from recruit. 17 Recalling Washington’s instructions to his
captains, it is certain that an officer was expected to ensure certain
behaviors in the rank and file. To the veteran
“compleat soldier”, these behaviors
would be habit formed by continuous inspection.
That is the mark at which we must aim.
Bland’s A Treatise of Military Discipline was initially
published in 1727 and reissued in several editions on both sides of the
Atlantic. According to the publisher of
the 1759 8th edition, Bland intended to provide his work as an
interim guide for the military, revising the outdated 1708 regulations.18
In
Bland’s we can confirm that equipment would be inspected thoroughly prior to
guard mount, rations (hard ammunition
bread) were to be taken on detached duty and how messes were organized. Inspections ensure that the unit “…may be
ready to execute all commands which shall come at any time from the Governor or
their Colonel.”19
Expectations for conduct in the ranks were
clearly spelled out, “Every soldier will give the greatest attention to the
words of every command, remaining perfectly silent and steady, not making the
least motion with the head, body, feet or hands, but such as will be
ordered…great care must be taken, not to begin a motion, till the word of
command, or signal of the drum, be ended, and then to be very exact in counting
a second of time, or 1, 2, betwixt each motion.” 20
The Prussian Manual is equally explicit on
the precedence on the immediate security of a camp prior to its laying out,
“As soon as the army has marched
into camp, the Quarterguards and Picquets must throw up redans or fleches (field
fortifications) in their front, and in case they have not much time, must place
Chevaux de frise (Frisian Horses, or
portable obstacles) there; when the army continues for and time in the same
camp, the redans are to be joined together; seven double sentries to be placed
at every Picquet, and one sentry over the arms…these sentries are to call out
every quarter of an hour at retreat-beating, and upon the outposts they demand
the countersign…” 21
Regarding duty on outposts and
forage parties, “…assemble by wings (sections), according as they have been
ordered…they must carry their haversacks along with them, and must be always
told how many days bread and pay will be sufficient…outposts and parties are to
march out of camp with shouldered arms, and without beat of drum…” 22
Throughout Bland, the Prussian
Manual, and The Science of Military
Posts, the authors are adamant that Colonels down to Corporals are
responsible for the discipline of the men.
In a professional army, the direction of the Corporal carries with it
the gold standard of the authority of experience. Yet experience is exactly what was lacking in
the leadership of the Continental Army.
Why indeed would a soldier trust the instruction of his social equal who
like himself took up arms only a short time ago? Major General Baron Von Steuben, Inspector
General of the Continental Army, wrote to his compatriot Baron Von Gaudy, “You
say to your soldier, 'Do this' and he does it. But I am obliged to say to the
American, 'This is why you ought to do this' and then he does it.”23
The “Why” is, as is laid out for the
Norfolk Militia; Efficiency: Expending
the least amount of energy, materiel, manpower etc, to achieve a desirable
effect. The key is that the “compleat” soldier
understands that every regulation of the service and expectation of his
Corporal are ultimately for the express purpose of defeating an enemy and
conserving manpower. These lessons are
passed down from La Cointe’s veterans who “know their duty best” to
recruit: the wearing the accoutrements high on the waist, shifting canteens and
haversacks on to the back to allow free movement to load and fire, how to stay
warm and dry on detached duty, how to build field fortifications on outer guard
and picquet…in short how to stay alive. This is where the experimentation comes in,
for few of us have military experience or Corporals from whom we can learn, but
then Von Steuben achieved a miracle in less than three months at Valley Forge
with similar raw material.
Von
Steuben, as Drillmaster and later Inspector General of the Continental Army,
was granted unparalleled authority by Washington to establish standards of
discipline for the Army. He understood
discipline, how to make a “compleat” soldier,
and appreciated American initiative when properly channeled. The independent spirit and somewhat
insubordinate character of the American soldier was very familiar to Von
Steuben. He had assisted Johann Meyr in
training, equipping, and fighting the most effective independent freikorps (light troops) in Prussian
service during the Seven Year’s War.24 Under Meyr this freikorps successfully prosecuted an irregular war in Franconia and
Thuringia in a Prussian answer to the “savage” Croatians and Pandours employed by the Austrians. 25 It would have been a type of war that would
have made Von Steuben (the erstwhile member of Frederick’s General Staff and
light infantry veteran of the petit guerre) uniquely suited to the
Continental Army. Von Steuben’s methods would serve as the basis for discipline
in the U.S. Army into the 19th century.
“The Regulations for the Order and Discipline
of the Troops of the United States”, simplifies even further the
information contained in Bland’s, The Prussian Manual, and the ’64.
Though not as thorough as the Regulations for the Prussian Infantry, Von
Steuben’s drill manual has three redeeming qualities: 1. It is simple; 2. We
know that it was the standard trained to at Valley Forge and adopted by
Congress in 1779; 3. Von Steuben explains “Why” to the Continental Officer and
soldier alike. How do we measure up
against these requirements? For the
purposes of brevity, I will include only his instructions to the private
soldier, accompanied by the questions these should raise in our own minds.
“The recruit having received his
necessaries, should in the first place learn to dress himself with a
soldier-like air; to place his effects properly in his knapsack, so as to carry
them with ease and convenience; how to salute his officers when he meets them;
to clean his arms, wash his linens and cook his provisions. He should early accustom himself to dress in
the night; and for that purpose always have his effects in his knapsack, and
that placed where he can put a hand on it in a moment, that in case of alarm he
may repair with the greatest alertness to the parade.” 26
Is my clothing worn
properly? Are my personal items stowed
neatly in my knapsack (instead of
hanging from it) so that I am not clanking around on the march? Do I acknowledge the officer of the day in
camp? Can I disassemble my firelock? Can
I cook for my messmates? Can I ready
myself for action within five minutes?
“When
learning to march, he must take the greatest pains to acquire a firm step and a
proper balance, practicing himself at all his leisure hours. He must accustom himself to the greatest steadiness under arms, to pay
attention to the commands of his officers, and exercise himself continually
with his firelock, in order to acquire vivacity in his motions. He must acquaint himself with the usual beats
and signals of the drum, and instantly obey them.”27
Do I practice the manual of arms
when off duty or not at an event? Am I
comfortable with my firelock? Do I know
what size flints it requires and where it must strike on the hammer steel? Do I know what to do when I can only hear the
musick above the din of battle?
“When
in the ranks, he must always learn the names of his right and left hand men and
file-leader, that he may be able to find his place readily incase of
separation. He must cover his
file-leader and dress well in his rank, which he may be assured of doing when
he can just perceive the breast of the third man in front of him. Having joined his company, he must no longer
consider himself a recruit, but as a soldier; and whenever he is ordered under
arms, must appear well dressed, with his arms and accoutrements clean and in
good order, and his knapsack, blanket, &c. ready to throw in his back in
case he should be ordered to take them.”28
Do
I know the men to my right and left? If
we move over broken terrain or must reform will I fall in on the correct man? Arms and
knapsacks must be important, Von Steuben mentions it twice! Do I clean them after duty or sneak off to
the sutlers, leaving them fouled in the arms bell?
“When
warned for guard, he must appear as neat as possible, carry all his effects
with him, and even when on sentry must have them at his back. He must receive the orders from the sentry he
relieves; and when placed before the guard-house, he must inform the corporal
of all that approach, and suffer no one to enter until examined; if he is
posted at a distance from the guard, he will march there in order, have the
orders explained to him by the corporal, learn which is the nearest post
between him and the guard, in case he should be obliged to retire, or have anything
to communicate, and what he is to do in case of alarm; or if in a town, in case
of fire and any disturbance. He will
never go more than twenty paces from his post; and if in a retired place. Or in
the night, suffer no one to approach within ten paces of him.
A
sentinel must never rest upon his arms, but keep walking his post. He must
never suffer himself to be relieved but by his corporal; challenge briskly at
night, and stop those who have not the countersign; and if any will not answer
to the third challenge, or having been stopped should attempt to escape, he may
fire on them.” 29
Do I take all aspects of living
history seriously…or just focus on material culture? The correct canteen, hand-stitching, or
fingerwoven tumpline mean absolutely nothing to the public we seek to educate
if we don’t act the part?
“When
on patrol, he must observe the strictest silence, nor make the least noise with
his arms or accoutrements.
In
action he will pay the greatest attention to the commands of his officers, level
well, and not throw away his fire; take particular care to keep his rank and
file, incline to that side he dresses to, and encourage his comrades to do
their duty.
When
ordered to march, he must not charge himself with any unnecessary baggage; he
will march at his ease, without however leaving his rank or file; he should
drink as seldom as possible, and never stop but when necessity obliges him; in
which case he must ask the leave of the commanding officer of the platoon.
When
arrived at camp or quarters, he must clean his arms, prepare his bed, and go
for necessaries, taking nothing without leave, nor committing any kind of
excess. He must always have a stopper
for the muzzle of his gun in case of rain, and when on a march; at which times
he will unfix his bayonet.” 30
Is my haversack to low, smacking into the
man to my left on the march? Is my tin cup not properly stowed in my
haversack or knapsack? Does my canteen clank against my bayonet socket? Can I
complete the forced march with the gear I choose to carry or will I fall out
and leave a gap for my Corporal to fill in the ranks? Is my firelock ready in any weather, as if my
life depended on it?
Von
Steuben asks much of the Continental Soldier, yet trained many weeks to prepare
for the campaign of 1778. The fruit of
their labor was the control of the battlefield at Monmouth and a retreating
British army later that summer. To improve ourselves before the roads are
hard enough to march, without the benefit of time served in Von Steuben’s Model
Company at Valley Forge, we must:
- Master
drill and the exercise of arms (The science of war at the tactical
level).
a. Purchase a period correct copy of the ’64 and Von Steuben’s. Find the pictures (plates) on the
internet. Say the commands and practice
in a mirror. This includes loading and firing.
(Make a wooden flint to spare our
flints and lock). Know our weapons, practice
how to change the flint and remediate misfires: efficiency and safety.
b.
Clean our firelocks during a football game (once a week). Know our firelocks and how they work. Don’t take apart the lock without a spring
vise and someone who has done it before.
c. Ask your NCOs to drill you during an event (better yet get together
before events). It usually happened
twice a day if a soldier wasn’t on duty, outerguard, picquet, or a work
detail. It doesn’t need to be long.
- Study
and understand your duties (The minutiae of the soldier’s life).
a. Consult extant diaries, periodicals, and orderly books. These are readily available online, at
libraries, colleges, and historical societies.
b. Consult extant Manuals: Bland’s, Von Steuben’s, La Cointe’s Science
of Military Posts, The Prussian Manual. These were usually only read by officers, but soldiers would have
been taught and known through experience what they
contained (Remember
Capt Ewald’s observation).
c. Volunteer for guard detail, picquet/patrol,
forage (water, wood, fodder/straw) details.
Learn by
doing. Extra duty is a good deal. Washington ordered that all detachments,
guards, fatigue parties and scouting
parties were to have an extra gill of rum per night. (General Orders, 11 June
1777). Spend time around the field musick and learn the signals and the
commands they represent.
- Practice
Discipline (The art of experience in preparedness).
a. Wear our equipment high at the ribcage. Wear our canteens, haversacks, knapsacks
swung to our backs so they don’t impede ourselves or our fellow rankers in
manipulating our firelocks. When we take
it off, stow it in a manner that it can be thrown on in case of alarm. Keep our personal items in our knapsacks, not
strewn about the tent or field kitchen.
b. Carry a bottle of sweet oil (olive oil not
petroleum based) and a tin of tallow or a mixture of beeswax and oil (like Snow
Seal sold commercially today). Keep our firelocks oiled and waterproof
our pans, cartridge boxes, shoes, haversacks, etc with the tallow. Make a tompion
and “cow’s knee” to protect your muzzle and lock from moisture. Neither our firelocks nor our feet work well
when wet.
c. Condition ourselves. If we don’t walk during the week, we’re not
going to make it on the weekend.
d. Make or purchase the uniform and equipment
proper to our impression. Sure it takes time
and research, but I would rather spend money on what’s appropriate, than waste
money on what’s wrong. Be humble, take
advice from people who have the knowledge (then check the extant documentation
to make sure they’re correct).
We have other pursuits, to be sure,
like what we do Monday through Friday.
Then again, Von Steuben’s methods took only a few feverish weeks. Drill, read, practice and never stop
improving the various aspects of our impressions, with a nod to the “compleat” soldier that marched out of
Valley Forge in 1778.
Dunbar,
as quoted by Keegan, John and Richard Homes. Soldiers: A History of Men in
Battle, Viking, NY, 1986, 66.
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