"Rancid Beef and Wormy Biscuit": Notes on "Improving" 18th c Cooking, Messing and Kitchens

Virginians of Bibb's Company, Prince Edward County Militia, pause to

cook rations on the march to Guilford CH, 1781. Note the use of sticks in place of fire

irons and iron trammel hooks.  We can infer that iron fire implements

were not in use from extant art and regimental orders that wagons were to be used for

the company tentage only with kettles to be carried by the men.

Recently a question was posted on an online group I follow asking about 18th c cooking.  There were the usual snarky remarks, but very little information from folks who were "in the know".  Sadly, in living history, particularly among mainstream organizations, we seem not to base our cooking on any historical research, but rather the Southern Dutch Oven Cookbook from Barnes and Noble (an admirable tome, to be sure, but not accurate to the 18th c).

I would submit several recommendations for improving upon cooking at living history events (by improving, I mean from and authenticity standpoint, of course).

1.  Rations. 

In 1775 Washington and his officers agreed on ration requirements that were seldom, if ever met throughout the war:

                "By order of his Excellency General Washington,

              a Board of General Officers

              sat yesterday in Cambridge, and unanimously recommended

              the following Rations to be delivered in the manner hereby directed.

             Corn'd Beef and Pork, four days in a week.

             Salt Fish one day, and fresh Beef two days.

             As Milk cannot be procured during the Winter Season,

             the Men are to have one pound and a half of Beef,

             or eighteen Ounces of Pork Pr day.2

            Half pint of Rice, or a pint of Indian Meal Pr Week.

            One Quart of Spruce Beer Pr day, or nine Gallons of Molasses

            to one hundred Men per week. 

            Six pounds of Candles to one hundred Men Pr week, for guards.3

            Six Ounces of Butter, or nine Ounces of Hogs-Lard Pr week.4

 

             Three pints of Pease, or Beans Pr Man Pr Week,

             or Vegetables equivalent, allowing Six Shillings Pr Bushel for Beans,

             or Pease-two and eight pence Pr Bushel for Onions-One

             and four pence Pr Bushel for Potatoes and Turnips.

             One pound of Flour Pr Man each day-

             Hard Bread to be dealt out one day in a week, in lieu of Flour." (1)

Throughout his narrative, Connecticut soldier Joseph Plump Martin records rations only on a few occasions and when he does, it is monotony; southern salt pork and sea bread, pork and bread, corned beef and hard bread in a borrowed pot, one pound each of beef and flour, salt shad on two separate occasions, beef and flour and finally, fresh pork and hard bread (2)

    For more on Continental Army rations, see my previous article, "18th c Military Rations and the Lack Thereof"

Rations for British army units also varied from garrison to campaign and from geographical location.  In one American garrision, soldiers were to receive:

                          "1 lb good Salt Beef per Man per Day
                            1 lb Flour per Man per Day                             6 oz Butter per Man per Week
                            1 1/2 [lb] Rice per Man per Week
                            1 Pint Teneriffe or other Strong wine per Man per day." (3)

Elsewhere in North America, soldiers would receive at Trois Rivieres:  

                          "A compleat Ration for one Man for one day in every Species

                          Flour or Bread. . . . . . . . . 1 1/2 Pounds
                         Beef . . . . . . ... . . 1 Pound
                         or Pork. . . . . . . . . 1/2 Pound
                        Pease. . . . . . . . . 1/4 Pint
                        Butter. . . . . . . . . 1 Ounce
                        Rice . . . . . . . . . . 1 Ounce"

The reality of rations on the march:  Hard bread, salt pork and boiled oatmeal.

The flagon contains switchel, an anti-scorbutic concoction of water, vinegar,

molasses and rum.

In 1776, the British Army Contract stipulated: 

the weekly ration contained "7 Pounds of Flour, or in lieu thereof 7 Pounds of Bread; 4 Pounds of Pork, or in lieu thereof 7 Pounds of Beef; 6 Ounces of Butter; 3 Pints of Pease; 1/2 Pound of Rice, or in lieu thereof 1/2 Pound of Oatmeal." 48  Mid-war, prior to his advance on the Hudson, Burgoyne's commissary also wrote from Montreal or in-kind substitutions in the daily ration:                                            "1 lb Broad or Flour

                                           1 lb Beef or 9 1/7 oz. pork

                                          3/7 pints pease

                                          6/7 oz. Butter or in lieu 1 1/7 oz. Cheese

                                          2 2/7 oz,. flour or in lieu 1 1/7 oz. Rice or 1 1/7 oz. Oatmeal." (4)

To these, soldiers were to augment with potatoes, parsnips, carrots, turnips, cabbages, and onions, sauerkraut, porter, various wines, spruce beer, malt, vinegar, generally intended as anti-scorbutics. (5)
While vegetables and anti-scorbutics were theoretically provided by the commissary, it seems that acquisition of fruits and vegetables was generally left to sutlers and soldiers' wives, who then made a profit in selling them to the messes (6).

2.  Messing Arrangements

Messes were ordinarily organized in 6-8 men (based on the number of men assigned to a tent), according to Lochee (7).  It follows that the soldiers were conducting the cooking rather than the wives of soldiers. 

Preparing a soup for the mess, "A Private Soldier and

Militiaman's Friend", (1786).

The cooks for a Mess of six.  Soups and stews were easily created from issued

rations and could be cooked for a few hours in the afternoon.  They were not overly

complicated and other tasks could be completed by the mess men, such as sewing,

cleaning of weapons or even diversions such as gaming.

Again, the SgtMaj recommends soup to the messes,

"A Private Solder and Militiaman's Friend" (1786).

3.  Kitchens

How differently the camp kitchens look that we see at reenactments and living history events.  Braziers, Dutch ovens, grilles, iron spits and trammels as well as cooking utensils abound in the recreated camp...yet we have no evidence of their use outside of the home or garrison.  Certainly we see iron trammels, ovens and cranes in the fireplaces of forts, however to think that these were carried on campaign in wagons meant for tentage seems impossible, given that men were to carry their mess equipment on their persons.

We find that the kitchen on campaign was much more simple than our modern recreations.  Below are some examples from period art:

"Soldiers Cooking", Rowlandson, 1798.  Here we do see the use of a chain

as a trammel, a copper or brass kettle and the use of branches to

make a frame for suspension of the pot.  Interestingly, Rowlandson has chosen to

depict all six of the mess-mates in this engraving.

Detail from "Encampment on Black Heath", Sandby, 1786. 

Black Heath was located just outside London, and according to

correspondence from Abigail to John Adams, was full of highwaymen and rogues.

A simple tin kettle resting on the ground.

Soldiers and Camp Followers Resting from a March, Jean-Baptiste Pater, 1730.

Here in this early 18th c depiction of French camp life, we do see a woman doing the

cooking for the mess.  The iron pot appears to be suspended on a line between two trees.

"Escorte d'Equipage", Painting by Car after Jean-Antoine Watteau, 1760.  A kettle suspended

from a tree stump and some plates and a pitcher in the foreground are all the

impedimenta of this French mess...even with the baggage train escort.

Detail from "A Perspective of a View of an Encampment",

Bowles and Carver, 1780.   Note the use of the sticks to make a tripod and the

simple design of the four tin pails.

...and the most impedimenta in a kitchen, I could possibly find, this at Hyde Park,

in London, presumably using existing structures or those erected for the Royal

Review.  "A Camp Kitchen in Hyde Park", Sandby, 1780.

While the previous illustrations show simple fires on the ground, it was also the practice in the British and Continental Armies to build field kitchens in the form of a round ditch with small fireboxes dug into the central mound.  This keeps the danger of fire from the tents, however, according to Reid, kettles were to be brought back to the company street for the officer of the day to inspect their contents and presumably to be consumed by the mess (9).

An earth camp Kitchen from Plate 3 in Grose, as reproduced in Neumann and Kravic.

Such kitchens would have been dug for each company, with one firebox to a mess.

Plate from Lochee's "Essay on Castremetation" depicting the

layout of a regimental camp.  The camp kitchens are represented

by the circles above the sutler's tents and officers' tents. Lochee does note

that the kitchens for the flank companies would be located on the perimeter, nearer

their post with the outer guard.

A recreated camp kitchen at Endview Plantation.  Queen's Own Loyal Virginia

Regiment member, Luke Fryer tends to the pan and kettle over the mess's

firebox.  As all the heat is directed towards the pan and kettle, the kitchen is far more

efficient than an open fire.

According to Simes, the kitchen had a diameter of 16 feet, with a three foot trench surrounding, the earth from the trench being thrown up in the center of the kitchen (10), as you see in the photo above.



4.  Cooking Equipment

If we are not to use Dutch ovens and such, what then can we use in keeping with the meagre equipment of the 18th c mess?  Period memoirs and correspondence generally only mention frying pans and kettles, and even these were scarce, although the intent was for one to belong to each mess.  Martin's memoir only mention the use or borrowing of kettles.  Just keeping this in mind (and leaving
the lodge cast iron materials at home) will go a long way towards improving the kitchen and cutting
down on weight.

The author's recreation of a repurposed shovel.  The original shovel/frying pan

is depicted in the upper left. (Neumann and Kravic).

For large kettles, I recommend Hot Dipped Tin or Carl Giordano.  Their products are heavy gauge tin and based on original designs and extant artifacts. 

On campaign in 1781.  Without wagons, the Queen's Rangers erect brush huts and

rely on a simple tin kettle for hot rations.   As the rangers operated from boats and

conducted multiple raids along the James, Elizabeth and Appomattox, we expect most

equipment of the mess was carried on the soldiers' persons.

I was able to "de-farb" a small one quart kettle I purchased on sutler row a few years back.  The small kettle had ears more suited to the 19th c.  I merely ground down the rivets that held on the anachronistic ears and fashioned brass ears appropriate to the 18thc.

Defarbing a sutler-row kettle.  Tools required:  Screwdriver, drill, pliers, tin snips,

jeweler's hammer.  This took about 30 mins to complete.

The author's inaugural use of what would be christened,

"The Pungo Mess Bacon Shovel" at a drill at Sully Plantation. 

Note the use of a forked stick in place of an iron trammel and the

use of sticks for suspension of the tin pail.  Easily constructed on the march.

This certainly doesn't mean that we are opposed to the thought of carrying a few extra impedimenta.  We do carry a blown glass bottle of rum, an 18th c tin coffee pot as well as a pewter flagon for mixing switchel and flip. Guilty...we are still a work in progress.  Oh yes, and earthen jar with a leather cover for carrying pickles.  I'm sorry, my kids like pickles.

For further reading, I would recommend the research of John Rees on the subjects of messing and kitchens and rations, found at:  http://www.revwar75.com/library/rees/kitchen.htm and the 2d NJ Mess Guide:  https://www.2nj.org/mess-guide




(1).  G.O., 24 Dec 1775, retrieved from:

https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-02-02-0555

(2) Martin, Joseph. "Memoir of Revolutionary War Soldier." Courier, NY, ed., 2012, pp. 55, 60, 81, 108, 110, 113, 141.

(3).  T. 64:201, Robinson to Navy Board, 4 Apr. 1781

(4) T. 29:45.
(5)  T. 64:103.
(6) . 64:106, Robinson to Gage, 9 Sept. 1775; More, Son, & Atkinson to Howe, 25 Sept. 1775; ibid.,

(7) Lochee, Lewis.  "An Essay on Castremetation".

(8) 64:103, Day to Robinson, 22 Aug. 1777; Report on Army Extras, 1778, as quoted in "The Organization of the British Army in the Revolution", retrieved from:http://www.americanrevolution.org/britisharmy4.php

(9) Reid, Thomas, "A Treatise on the Military Duties of Infantry Officers, Walter and Egerton, 1795 (25).
(10) Simes, Thomas, "A Treatise on the Military Science." London, 1780. (11)
(11 ) Simes (174)

Journal of William Calk, Surveyor of Caintuck: 1775

Compass, Jacob's staff, gunter line (33 ft vice the standard 66)
and surveyor's notes of William Calk, Kentucky Historical Society

  William Calk (1740-1823) was recently mentioned by a friend on another page.  There is a great deal of information about his travels to "Caintuck" and "Knew Orlands" available in PDF format in various historical societies' archives.  He hailed from Prince William County Virginia was the surveyor of Boonsboro, Kentucky in 1775.  He traveled there with one Abraham Hank, the grandfather of a fellow with the last name of Lincoln and fell in with the company of a Captain Boone, as reads his journal below:

              "1775 March 13th mond I set out from prince wm. to travel to Cain- tuck on tuesday Night our company all Got together at Mr Prizes at Rapadan Which was ABraham hanks philip Drake Eanock Smith Robert Whitledge & my Self thear abrams Dogs leg got broke By Drake's Dog -

wedns 15th we started Early from prises made a good Days travel & lodge this Night at mr cars on North fork James River.

Entries of April from Calk's Journal, Kentucky Historical Society

thurs 16th we started Early it Raind Chief part of the Day Snowd in the Eavening very hard & was very coald we travld all Day & Got to Mr Blacks at the foot of the Blue Ridge


fryd 17th we Start Early cross the Ridge the wind Blows very hard & cold and lodge at James loyls

Satrd 18th we git this Day to William andersons at Crows ferrey & there we Stay till monday morning

mond 20th we Start early cross the fery and lodge this night at Wm adamses on the head of catauby

tuesd 21st we Start early and git over pepers ferey on new River & lidge at pepers this night.

 wedns 22d we Start early and git to foart chissel whear we git some good loaf Bread & good Whiskey

thurs 23d we Start early & travel till a good while in the Night and git to major cammels on holston River.

fryday ye 24th we Start early & turn out of the wagon Road to go across the mountains to go by Danil Smiths we lose Drive [Calk's black servant, presumably a slave] Come to a turabel mountain that tried us all almost to death to git over it & we lodge this night on the Lawrel fork of holston under a grait mountain & Roast a fine fat turkey for our Sup- pers & Eat it without aney Bread

Satrd 25 we Start Early travel over Some more very Bad mountains one that is caled Clinch mountain & we git this night to Danil Smiths on clinch and there we Staid till thursday morning on tuesday night & wednesday morning it Snowed Very hard and was very colad & we hunted a good deal there while we Staid in Rough mountains & Kild three Deer & one turkey Eanock ABram & I got lost tuesday night & it asnowing & Should a lain in the mountains had not I had a pocket Compas By which I Got in a littel in the night and fired guns and they heard them and caim in By the Repoart

thursd 30th we Set out again & went down to Elk gardin and there Suplid our Selves With Seed Corn & irish tators then we went on alittel way I turnd my hors to drive afore me & he got Scard Ran away t.hrew Down the Saddel Bags & Broke three of our powder goards & ABrams flask Burst open a walet of corn & lost a good Deal & made aturrabel flustration amongst the Reast of the horses Drakes mair ran against a sapling & noct it down we cacht them all agin & went on & lodgd at John Duncan

fryd 31st we suplayd our Selves at Dunkans with a 108 pounds of Bacon & went on again to Brileys mill & suployd our Selves with meal & lodged this night at clinch By a large cainbrake & cuckt our Suppers.

April satd first this morning there is ice at our camp half inch thick we Start Early & travel this Day along a verey Bad hilley way cross one creek whear the horses almost got Mired Some fell in & all wet their loads we cross Clinch River & travell till late in the Night & camp on cove creek having two men with us that wair pilates

Sund 2d this morning is avery hard frost we Start Early travel over powels mountain and camp on the head of Powels valey whear there is verey good food

mond 3d we Start Early travel down the valey cross powels River go some throw the woods with out aney track cross some Bad hils Git into hendersons Road camp on a creek in powels valey;

tuesday 4th Raney we Start about 10 oclock and git down to capt martins in the valey where we over take Coln. henderson & his companey Bound for Caintuck & there we camp this Night there they were Broiling & Eat- ing Beef without Bread;

Wednesday ye 5th Breaks away fair & we go on down the valey & camp on indian Creek we had this creek to cross maney times & very Bad Banks ABrams Saddel turned & the load all fell in we go out this Eavening & Kill two Deer

thurd 6th this morning is ahard frost & we wait at camp for Coln. henderson & companey to come up they come up about 12 oclock & we Join with them and camp there Still this night waiting for Some part of the companey that had their horses Ran away with their packs;

fryday ye 7th this morning is avery hard Snowey morning & we Still continue at camp Being in number about 40 men & Some Neagros this Eavening Comes aletter from Capt Boon at caintuck of the indians doing mischief and Some turns back

Satrd 8th We all pact up & Started Crost Cumberland gap about one oclock this Day we Met a great maney peopel turnd Back for fear of the indians but our Company goes on Still with good courage we come to a very ugly Creek With Steep Banks & have it to Cross Several times on this Creek we camp this night

Sunday 9th this morning We wait at camp for the cattel to Be drove up to Kill a Beef tis late Before they come & peopel makes out alittel snack & agree to go on till till Night we git to cumberland River & there we camp meet 2 more men turn Back

Monday 10th this is alowry morning & very like for Rain & we keep at camp this day and Some goes out ahunting I & two more goes up avery large mountain Near the top we Saw the track of two Indians whear they had lain unter Some Rocks Some of the companey went over the River a bofelo hunting But found None at night Capt. hart comes up with his packs & there they hide Some of thier lead to lighten thier packs that they may travel faster (Were they carrying lead ingots to Boonsboro for the casting of ball?)

tuesday 11th this is a very loury morning & like for Rain But we all agree to Start Early we Cross Cumberland River & travel Down it about 10 miles through Some turrabel Cainbrakes as we went down abrams mair Ran into the River with Her load & Swam over he followd her & got on her & ma.de her Swim Back agin it is a very Raney Eave- ning we take up camp near Richland Creek they Kill a Beef Mr Drake Bakes Bread with out Washing his hands we Keep Sentry this Night for fear of the indians-

Wednesday 12th this is a Raney morning But we pack up & go on we come to Richland creek it is high we toat our packs over on a tree & swim our horses over & there We meet another Companey going Back they tell Such News ABram & Drake is afraid to go aney further there we camp this night-

thursday 13th this morning the weather Seems to Brake & Be fair ABram & Drake turn Back we go on & git to loral River we come to a creek before wheare we are obliged to unload & to toate our packs over on alog this day we meet about 20 more turning Back we are obligd to toat our packs over loral River & Swim our Horses one hors Ran in with his pack and lost it in the River & they got it [back]

fryday 14th this is a clear morning with a Smart frost we go on & have avery mirey Road and camp this Night on a creek of loral River & are Surprisd at camp By a wolf-

Satterday 15th clear with a Small frost we Start Early we meet Some men that turns & goes With us we travel this Day through the plais Cald the Bressh & cross Rockease River & camp ther this Night & have fine food for our horses-

Sunday 16th cloudy & warm we Start Early & go on about 2 mile down the River and then turn up a creek that we crost about 50 times Some very Bad foards with a great Deal of very good land on it the Eavening we git over to the Waters of Caintuck & go alittel Down the creek & there we camp keep Sentry the forepart of the night it Rains very har[d] all night-

monday 17th this is a very Rany morning But Breaks about 11 oclock & we go on and Camp this Night in Several companeys on Some of the creeks of caintuck

tuesday 18th fair & cool and we go on about 11 oclock we meet 4 men from Boons Camp that Caim to cunduck us on we camp this night Just on the Beginning of the Good land near the Bluie lick they kill 2 Bofelos this Eavening-

This Wednesd 19th Smart frost this mornling they kill 3 Bofelos about 11 oclock we come to where the indialns fired on Boons Companey & Kild 2 men & a dog & wounded one man in the thigh we campt this night on oter creek-

thursday 20th this morning is Clear & cool We Start Early & git Down to Caintuck to Boons foart about 12 oclock wheare we stop they Come out to meet us & welcom us in with a voley of guns

fryday 21st Warnm this Day they Begin laying off lots in the town and prearing for peopel to go to worek to make corn- [Calk begins his Survey]

Satterday 22d they finish laying out lots this Eaveninlg I went afishing and Cacht 3 cats they meet in the night to Draw for choise of lots But Refer it till morning-

April Sunday 23d this morniing the peopel meets & Draws for Chais of loots this is avery warm day monday

24th We all view our loots & Some Dont like them about 12 oclock the Combsses come to town & Next morning they make them abark canew and Set off down the River to meet thier Companey-

tuesday 25th in the Eavening we git us a plaise at the mouth of the creek & Begin clearing this day we Begin to live with out Bread

Wednesday 26th We Begin Building us a house & a plaise of Defenee to keep the indians off

thursday 27th Raniey all Day But We Still keep about our house-

Satterday 29th We git our house kivered with Bark & move our things into it at Night and Begin houskeeping Eanock Smith Robert Whitledge & my Self

monday May ye first I go out to look for my mair and Saw 4 Bofelos the Being the first Ever I Saw & I shot one of them but did not git him when I caim home Eanek & Robin had found the mair & was gone out ahunting & did Not Come in for Days and kild only one Deer-

tuesday 2d I Went out in the morning & kild aturkey and come in & got Some on for my Breakfast ancd then went & Sot in to Clearing for Corn-" - Mississippi Historical Review

 

18th Century Military Rations, and the lack thereof...

Foraging:  Washington called it thievery until he used his expanded powers

granted by the Congress during the winter of 1777-1778.  Officially and

unofficially smokehouses and barns were liberated throughout the war.

        "According to the saying of Solomon, hunger will break thro' a Stone Wall. It is therefore a very pleasing Circumstance to the Division under my Command, that there is a probability of their marching. Three Days successively we have been destitute of Bread. Two Days we have been intirely without Meat. It is not to be had from the Commissaries. Whenever we procure Beef, it is of such a vile Quality, as to render it a poor Succerdernium for Food. The Men must be supplied, or they cannot be commanded. … The Complaints are too urgent to pass unnoticed. It is with Pain, that I mention this Distress. I know it will make your Excellency unhappy; But, if you expect the Exertions of virtuous Principles, while your Troops are deprived of the essential Necessaries of Life, your final Disappointment will be great, in Proportion to the Patience, which now astonishes every Man of human Feeling." [1]

                                    -Ltr. of Genl Varnum to Genl Washington, 22 Dec 1777.

        In 1775, the best of intentions were made to adequately supply the soldier and militiman that marched against the Crown forces.  The road to Valley Forge, however, is "paved with good intentions".  Understanding that what was authorized was significantly different from what was issued, it nevertheless gives us a good picture of what was available to the soldier in the most ideally plentiful of conditions.  Furthermore, authorized rations generally seemed to follow similar lines throughout provincial and Continental forces.

          Connecticutt-

         "The Order and Direction from the General Assembly of the Colony of CONNECTICUT to their Commissary, for issuing Provisions to the Troops by them raised for the defence of their rights and privileges. — MAY, 1775.           Three-quarters of a pound of Pork, or one pound of Beef, per diem; Fish three times per week.         One pound of Bread or Flour per diem.         Three pints of Beer per diem, or Spruce sufficient, and nine gallons of Molasses to a Company per week.         Half a pint of Rice, or one pint of Meal; six ounces of Butter; three pints of Peas, or Beans, per week.         One pint of Milk per diem.         Three pounds of Candles to a Company per week.         Twenty-four pounds of Soap, or four Shillings' worth, to a Company per week.        Vinegar, two gallons per Company per week.        Chocolate, six pounds per Company per week.        Sugar, three pounds per Company per week.        One gill of Rum per man, on fatigue days only.   Provision made for the Hospital at discretion of the Physicians and Surgeons. The Rations will cost — when Pork is issued, eleven pence per diem; when fresh Beef, ten pence."[2] 

         Massachussetts-

       "In Provincial Congress, Watertown, June 10, 1775.   Resolved, That each Soldier in the Massachusetts Army shall have the following allowance per day, viz:         Article 1. One pound of Bread.         Article 2. Half a pound of Beef, and half a pound of Pork, and if Pork cannot be had, one pound and  a quarter of Beef; and one day in seven, they shall have one pound and one-quarter of salt Fish, instead of one day' s allowance of meat.         Article 3. One pint of Milk, or, if Milk cannot be had, one gill of Rice.         Article 4. One quart of good spruce or malt Beer.         Article 5. One gill of Peas, or Beans, or other sauce equivalent.         Article 6. Six ounces of good Butter per week.         Article 7. One pound of good common Soap for six men per week.         Article 8. Half a pint of Vinegar per week per man, if it can be had".[3]

 
        Finally, the Congressional Continental Ration:

        "1 lb. of beef, or ¾ lb. pork, or 1 lb. salt fish, per day.

        1 lb. of bread or flour per day.

        3 pints of pease, or beans per week, or vegitables equivalent, at one dollar per

       bushel   for pease or beans.

        1 pint of milk per man per day, or at the rate of 1/72 of a dollar.

        1 half pint of Rice, or 1 pint of indian meal per man per week.        

        1 quart of spruce beer or cyder per man per day, or nine gallons of Molasses per    

        company of 100 men per week.

        3 lb. candles to 100 Men per week for guards.        

       24 lb. of soft or 8 lb. of hard soap  for 100 men per week."[4]

          So, the private soldier's individual daily ration, according to the U.S. Army quartermaster's Museum, amounted to:  16 oz. beef, 6.8 oz. peas, 18 oz. flour, 1.4 oz. rice/meal, 16 oz. milk, .1830 oz. Soap, 1 qt. spruce beer and .0686 oz. candle, providing him (albeit theoretically) "...more calories, twice as much protein, an adequate supply of all minerals and vitamins with the exception of vitamins A and C, " than the diet of the WWII infantryman.  [5]

A private's daily ration in the portions noted above,

an ideal rarely realized until the end of the war.

(l-r) salt pork, lye soap, candle stub, pint of hard cider, peas, rice, corn meal

           In reality, the prescribed ration was rarely followed to the letter, whether by design, duplicity, or want.

          "It being represented to the General, that many Regiments would at this season chuse to lessen their Rations of Meat and supply it with Vegetables, if they could be permitted:  His Concern for the health of the troops, and desire to gratify them in every reasonable request, induces him to direct, that the Colonels of such Regiments, as choose to adopt this plan, signify it to the Commissary General, and in two days afterwards the Quarter Master of such Regiment, be allowed to draw one quarter part of the usual Rations in Money to be laid out in Vegetables for his Regiment." [6]



        Diet also changed with proximity to towns and farms that had not yet been picked over by both sides.  Lieut. Jabez Fitch (Jewett's Co., 8th Conn.) had quite a varied diet during the New York campaign of 1776 consisting of varying amounts of milk, rice, cheese, pork, quahogs (clams), turnips, salt beef, biscuit, mutton, chocolate, sugar, rum, tea and toast [7].   Some of this was foraged for, some paid for, and some supplied by the British commissariat (after his capture on Long Island).



Rations drawn by the 10th Virginia , November 1777 [8]



        Due to the challenges of 18th century logistics, in-kind substitutions were often made,  as was the case in baked bread and whiskey for flour and rum.  The entries for the 10th Virginia Regiment (Fig. 8) are characteristic of vagaries and inconsistencies in supply found throughout Assisitant-Commissary McAllister's records.

        Washington even went so far as to order the troops to glean the woods and fields of French Sorrel (similar to spinach), watercress (related to cabbage), and goosefoot (also similar to spinach in taste) to make "sallad" as an anti-scorbutic.[9]



Foraging for "Sallad":  Sprigs of dandelion and wild violet leaves, shown here, 

could be brewed into a bitter tea high in vitamins A, B, C, D

-a reasonably effective remedy for scurvy.



         Rations were also not distributed equally, as in April and May of 1778, were Virginia units on detached duty received soap, but no candles, and the Barracks and Commissary at York received candles, but no soap.[10]  This was probably a function of shortage in general or perhaps their duties during that period.  Nevertheless, Washington continually bemoaned the lack of soap and "sour crout" to Congress, citing their collective abilities to prevent disease.

         
          Sadly, the omission of various portions of a ration was largely due to want, which Joseph Plumb Martin's memoirs jadedly recapitulate,

            "When we engaged in the service we promised the following articles for a ration: one pound of good and wholesome fresh or salt beef, or three quarters of a pound of good salt pork, a pound of good flour, soft or hard bread, a quart of salt to every hundred pounds of fresh beef, a quart of vinegar to a hundred rations, a gill of run, brandy, or whiskey per day, some little soap and candles, I have forgot how much, for I had so little of these two articles that I never knew the quantity.  And as to the article of vinegar, I do not recollect of ever having any except a spoonful at the famous rice and vinegar Thanksgiving in Pennsylvania, in the year 1777.  But we never received what was allowed us.  Oftentimes have I gone one, two, three, and even four days without a morsel, unless the fields or forests might chance to afford enough to prevent absolute starvation. Often, when I have picked the last grain from the bones of my scanty morsel, have I eat the very bones, as much of them as possibly could be eaten, and then have had to perform some hard and fatiguing duty, when my stomach has been as craving as it was before I had eaten anything at all.



Closer to reality:  tough beef and ash cake.  



            If we had got our full allowance regularly, what was it?  A bare pound of fresh beef and a bare pound of bread or flour.  The beef, when it had gone through all its divisions and subdivisions, would not be much over three quarters of a pound, and that nearly or quite half bones. The beef that we got in the army was, generally, not many degrees above carrion;  it was much like the old Negro's rabbit, it had not much fat upon it and very little lean.  When we drew flour, which was much of the time we were in the field or on marches, it was of small value, being eaten half-cooked, besides a deal of it being unavoidably wasted in the cookery.

             When in the field, and often while in winter quarters, our usual mode of drawing our provisions, when we did draw any, was as follows:---a return being made out for all the officers and men, for seven days, we drew four days of meat and the whole seven days of flour.  At the expiration of the four days, the other three days allowance of beef. Now, dear reader, pray consider a moment, how were five men in a mess, five hearty, hungry young men, to subsist four days on twenty pounds of fresh beef (and I might say twelve or fifteen pounds) without any vegetables or any other kind of sauce to eke it out.  In the hottest season of the year it was the same. Though there was not much danger of our provisions putrefying, we had none on hand long enough for that, if it did, we obliged to eat it, or go without anything.  When General Washington told Congress, 'the soldiers eat every kind of horse fodder but hay' he might have gone a little farther and told them that they eat considerable hog's fodder and not a trifle of dog's---when they could get it to eat." [11]

          These problems appear to manifest themselves as a result of the byzantine nature of the Continental supply corps, the failure to grant the army the authority to requisition supplies, and the devaluation of the Continental dollar.  Were it not that Washington was given increasing authority which resulted in the practice of requisition during the winter of 1777-78, tactical supply (Division and below) would not have been able to meet the most basic needs of the army.

          The new supply system began to take shape in 1778, with the shame of mass graves and Valley Forge and the Conway Cabal behind it.  As reported by the Board of War to Congress,



Rations drawn by Col Hartley's Reg't, Apr-July 1779 [12]



           "That the commissaries general of purchases and issues have represented to them, that from the moving state of the army, many parts of the ration, as established by Congress, cannot frequently be obtained, and, from the peculiar circumstances attending the supplies, there is sometimes an over-quantity of one article while others are extremely scarce, some of the states affording greater quantities of meat, while others abound more in flour; and that hence great embarrassments arise in the delivery of the stated ration; and that under such fluctuating circumstances, which change with the motions of the army, it is impracticable and troublesome to apply to Congress on every alteration of situation;'

          

          Whereupon,

           Resolved, That the Commander in Chief of the armies of the United States shall, in the army under his immediate command, and the commander of a separate department shall, in the army under his command, settle and determine according to circumstances, the ration to be issued to the troops, from time to time, giving an over proportion of a plentiful article in lieu and in full satisfaction of such as are scarce or not to be had, and which have been heretofore deemed part of the ration, reporting, from time to time, to the Board of War, the alterations and regulations by them respectively made in this respect..." [13]

            Then as ever, doctrine had to catch up with reality.   The manner in which the soldier was clothed and fed would undergo metamorphosis from tactical logistics to departmental quartermasters, to purchasing agents and back throughout the war.   According to Risch (1981), "It was 1780 before Congress, in the interest of economy, sharply curtailed departmental units of the supply agencies in the military departments.  This reduction was linked to congressional action making the states responsible for providing specific supplies-beef, pork, flour, rum, salt, and forage-to the Continental Army.  Reduction of departmental personnel was increased when Congress later resorted to the use of contracts for such supplies." [14]


                                                                     -Cincinnatus


                "Better is a dinner of herbs where love is than a fattened ox and hatred with it."

                                                                     -Proverbs 15:17

 [1] Letter from Brigadier General Varnum to General George Washington, 22 Dec 1777., retrieved from http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=WasFi10.xml&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=all, 10 Jan 2013.

[2] Connecticut Authorized Ration, American Archives Series 4, Volume 3, Page 0031., retrieved from http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/cgi-bin/amarch/getdoc.pl?/var/lib/philologic/databases/amarch/.5867, accessed 11 Jan 13.

[3]  Massachussetts Authorized Ration,  American Archives Series 4, Volume 3, Page 0030., retrieved from http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/cgi-bin/amarch/documentidx.pl?doc_id=S4-V3-P01-sp01-D0048&showfullrecord=on, 11 Jan 13.

[4] January 4 1775, Journals of the Continental Congress, p. 322., retrieved from http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=lljc&fileName=003/lljc003.db&recNum=66&itemLink=D?hlaw:1:./temp/~ammem_nzCI::%230030067&linkText=1,  9 Jan 2013.

[5] Retrieved from  http://www.qmfound.com/history_of_rations.htm, 9 Jan 2013.

[6] General Orders, Head Quarters, New York, July 22, 1776. Letterbook, Papers of George Washington., retrieved from http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=WasFi05.xml&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=all,  10 Jan 2012.

[7] Sabine, W.H.W. (Ed.) (1954).  The New York Diary of Lieutenant Jabez Fitch (NY Public Library manuscript with historical notes), Colburn and Tegg, New York. 27-70.

[8] George Washington Papers at the Library of Congress, 1741-1799: Series 6.

Military Papers. 1755-1798 John McAlister, Assistant Commissary, Provision Returns, October 27,

1777-July 29, 1778., retrieved from http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mgw6&fileName=mgw6c/gwpage003.db, 10 Jan 13.

[9] John McAlister, Assistant Commissary, Records, April-May 1778., George Washington Papers at the Library of Congress., retrieved from http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mgw6&fileName=mgw6c/gwpage002.db&recNum=7, 16 Jan 13.

[10] General Orders, Middle-Brook, 9 Jul 1777., retrieved from, http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mgw:@field(DOCID+@lit(gw080196)), 16 Jan 13.

[11] Martin, Joseph Plumb. Private Yankee Doodle,  p. 238.

[12] George Washington Papers at the Library of Congress, 1741-1799: Series 6.

Military Papers. 1755-1798, John McAlister, Provision Returns, 1777; 1778; 1779,. retrieved from,

http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mgw6&fileName=mgw6c/gwpage004.db, 10 Jan 13.

[13] August 26, 1778, Journals of the Continental Congress, p. 838., retrieved from http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=lljc&fileName=011/lljc011.db&recNum=424&itemLink=D?hlaw:18:./temp/~ammem_kEQH::%230110425&linkText=1, 9 Jan 2013.

[14] Risch, Erna. "Supplying Washington's Army", U.S. Army Center of Military History Special Study, 1981., p 16.